Within the intricate web of American higher education, the practice of Affirmative Action has long been a focal point of discussion, embodying both its aspirations and complexities. Over the years, this policy has catalyzed shifts in college admissions, fostering diversity while inciting debates about its efficacy and fairness. In this article, we embark on an exploration of the journey from Affirmative Action’s inception to its recent legal challenges, examining the resulting transformation in the educational landscape and the nuanced consequences that lie ahead.

Summary

• In the 1960s, Affirmative Action emerged to combat employment discrimination and was later extended to college admissions.
• Over 60 years, race-based admissions saw non-white American students’ college enrollment rise from 5% to 42.6%.
• In June 2023, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against race-conscious college admissions, barring the consideration of race in admissions.
• Prior to the 2023 ruling, eight states had already banned Affirmative Action.
• Banning Affirmative Action will impact college diversity, especially for Black and Hispanic students, prompting colleges to explore alternative methods.

The Definition and History of Affirmative Action

The Core of Affirmative Action

Affirmative Action comprises a set of national policies designed to factor in applicants’ gender, race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, age, or disability in both job hiring and higher education admission. Its primary aim is to enhance employment and educational opportunities for individuals from minority groups. 

A Historical Overview

Did you know that originally Affirmative Action was not implemented for college admissions? Despite common belief, President Lyndon Johnson initiated Affirmative Action in 1961 to enhance employment opportunities for African Americans. Its scope later expanded to include women, Native Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities, eventually reaching colleges, universities, and state and federal agencies. Essentially, affirmative action was conceived as a remedy against workplace discrimination.

Affirmative Action in Higher Education

How was Affirmative Action implemented in higher education? During the 1960s and 1970s, numerous colleges formulated their own Affirmative Action strategies to promote racial diversity and mitigate discrimination. They established specific quotas or ratios to ensure the enrollment of students from minority racial backgrounds. However, in 1978, the Supreme Court ruled that this approach violated the 14th Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as it relied solely on race as the primary criterion for making admissions decisions.

From 1978 to 2023, colleges were allowed to consider race as a factor in admission criteria. However, making admission decisions solely based on an applicant’s racial background, or using quotas and ratios, was prohibited. How then did Affirmative Action policies impact college admission? This exploration unfolds in the following sections.

The Impact of Affirmative Action on College Admission

Before the consideration of race as a factor in admissions, around 1960, approximately 95% of recent high school graduates preparing for college were white. Fifty years later, many colleges adopted Affirmative Action policies for admissions. In the 2010-11 academic year, 34.2% of students who enrolled in U.S. universities belonged to non-white domestic groups and were not international students, as per data from the National Center for Education Statistics. This percentage continued to rise, reaching 42.6% by the 2020-21 academic year.

An analysis of enrollment data regarding students’ race and ethnicity at prestigious universities such as Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Stanford, and MIT reveals a noteworthy trend. Between 2012 and 2021, there was a consistent increase in the admission of Asian American, African American, and Hispanic students. Simultaneously, the enrollment of White students followed a declining trajectory over the same ten-year period.

To illustrate this further, consider Harvard University as an example. In 2012, Asian students constituted 13.6% of the student body, which grew to 14.83% in 2021—twice their general population share of about 7.2% in 2021. The percentage of Black or African American students also rose from 5.4% to 6.77%, and Hispanic or Latino students experienced an increase from 7.0% to 9.86%. In contrast, the proportion of White students notably decreased, declining from 48.3% to 37.63%.

Both the top five universities and the broader United States demonstrate that college student populations increasingly feature diverse racial backgrounds. Academic institutions are actively embracing students from various minority groups, thereby extending greater educational opportunities in line with Affirmative Action policies. 

The 2023 Ruling Against Affirmative Action in Higher Education

In light of the evident and positive impact that Affirmative Action had on enhancing college diversity, one might question the rationale behind the 2023 Supreme Court declaration that the utilization of Affirmative Action policies in enrollment is unconstitutional.

In two specific cases centered around Affirmative Action, particularly at Harvard University and the University of North Carolina, the plaintiffs, represented by Students for Fair Admissions (SSFA), argued that these institutions exhibited discriminatory practices towards Asian and White students. Their contention stemmed from the assertion that preferential treatment was extended to Black and Hispanic students during the admissions process.

On June 29th, a historic 6-3 decision by the Supreme Court proclaimed that these two cases violated the Constitution. This ruling reversed a 2003 precedent, which had allowed colleges to factor race as an element within personalized admissions procedures. Consequently, the implication is that educational institutions will no longer retain the legal prerogative to employ Affirmative Action policies for admitting students based on their racial identity.

Upon the release of this new ruling, it sparked a far-reaching debate. Advocates for the prohibition of Affirmative Action policies in higher education contend that such measures could potentially exacerbate discrimination during the admissions process. They emphasize that college admissions should prioritize academic aptitude over considerations of race and ethnicity. Conversely, those opposed to the ban argue that Affirmative Action policies function as safeguards for students from minority backgrounds who encounter greater obstacles in accessing higher education. According to their perspective, these policies are intentionally crafted to ensure equity rather than mere equality. 

The Road Ahead After Banning Race-Based College Admission

The Impending Diversity Decline Challenge on US Campuses

Prior to the 2023 ruling, a total of 8 states, namely California, Florida, Michigan, Nebraska, Arizona, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, and Idaho, had already enacted bans on the implementation of Affirmative Action. Among these states, California set the precedent by discontinuing Affirmative Action in 1996. This decision yielded far-reaching ramifications, resulting in a significant reduction in diversity at prominent California institutions. Particularly impacted were Black and Hispanic students, whose enrollment at UCLA and UC Berkeley experienced a drastic 40% decline that year. Consequently, high-achieving Black and Hispanic students often opted for less competitive schools where a more pronounced minority presence existed. Moreover, these students displayed diminished enthusiasm for pursuing advanced degrees or entering lucrative STEM fields. As a result, their earnings stood roughly 5% lower compared to what they might have achieved had they accessed more selective universities through affirmative action pathways. 

Exploring Alternative Approaches to Improve Diversity and Inclusion

Given the restriction imposed on employing race as a parameter for admissions in both private and public colleges/universities, educational institutions are compelled to explore alternative considerations, such as family income, nationality, gender, and other variables. For instance, adapting admissions strategies to account for economic backgrounds has the potential to dismantle financial barriers and broaden accessibility. Embracing students from diverse nations cultivates a globally interconnected educational environment, while promoting gender balance serves to erode stereotypes and advance equitable practices. Embracing these alternative approaches holds the promise of fostering a more inclusive and multifaceted campus community.

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In summary, the journey from Affirmative Action’s inception to the 2023 Supreme Court ruling has shaped college admissions, sparking debates about diversity and fairness. With the ban on race-based college admission, concerns about dwindling campus diversity arise. As we navigate this evolving landscape, the path forward calls for creative solutions that uphold access and embrace a diverse campus community.

Sources:

1. https://www.britannica.com/topic/affirmative-action
2. https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2023-06-29/was-there-a-right-time-to-end-affirmative-action
3. https://blog.prepscholar.com/what-is-affirmative-action-in-college-admissions
4. https://www.bestcolleges.com/research/affirmative-action-statistics/#fn-9
5. https://zacharybleemer.com/wp-content/uploads/Policy-Briefs/UC-CHP-2020.4-Affirmative-Action.pdf
6. https://www.npr.org/2023/06/30/1185226895/heres-what-happened-when-affirmative-action-ended-at-california-public-colleges
7. Harvard University student enrollment by race: https://datausa.io/profile/university/harvard-university
8. Yale University student enrollment by race: https://datausa.io/profile/university/yale-university
9. Princeton University student enrollment by race: https://datausa.io/profile/university/princeton-university
10. Stanford University student enrollment by race: https://datausa.io/profile/university/stanford-university
11. MIT student enrollment by race: https://datausa.io/profile/university/massachusetts-institute-of-technology